Tracking a surface in a 3-dimensional scene using natural visual features of the surface

ABSTRACT

A facility for determining the 3-dimensional location and orientation of a subject surface in a distinguished perspective image of the subject surface is described. The subject surface has innate visual features, a subset of which are selected. The facility uses the location of the selected visual features in a perspective image of the subject surface that precedes the distinguished perspective image in time to identify search zones in the distinguished perspective image. The facility searches the identified search zones for the selected visual features to determine the 2-dimensional locations at which the selected visual features occur. Based on the determined 2-dimensional locations, the facility determines the 3-dimensional location and orientation of the subject surface in the distinguished perspective image.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser. No.10/692,020, filed on Oct. 22, 2003 now U.S. Pat. No. 7,343,278, entitledTracking A Surface In A 3-Dimensional Scene Using Natural VisualFeatures Of The Surface which claims the benefit of (1) U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 60/420,638, entitled “An Augmented Reality RegistrationMethod Based On Matching Templates Generated From An Image Texture,”filed on Oct. 22, 2002; and (2) U.S. Provisional Application No.60/513,725, entitled “Registrating a Specific Planar Scene UsingFiducial Markers,” filed on Oct. 22, 2003, each of which is herebyincorporated by reference in its entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention is directed to the fields of computer vision andvideo processing.

BACKGROUND

One task faced in the field of computer vision is tracking the movementof an object within a video scene. In many cases, tracking the objectconsists of tracking the location and orientation of the object withrespect to a camera—that is, the point in space that is the perspectivefrom which the video scene is captured.

One significant subset of the movement tracking task is tracking themovement of a roughly planar, i.e., 2-dimensional, surface within avideo scene. Such a surface may be one side of a sheet of paper, eithera free-standing sheet of paper or a sheet of paper in a book. It mayalso be a surface presented by virtually any other object. Oneapplication of surface tracking is introducing a view of a virtual,3-dimension object into each frame of the video scene that appears tofloat about the surface, termed reality augmentation.

Surface tracking has conventionally been addressed through the use offiducial marker tracking. Fiducial marker tracking involves affixing aspecial, visually distinct symbol (such as a bold black square having awhite interior) to the surface to be tracked; locating the symbol—calleda fiducial marker—in each video frame; determining the location of thesurface with respect to the camera based on the size of the marker inthe video frame and its location in the video frame; and determining theorientation of the surface with respect to the camera based on theorientation of the marker in the video frame.

Fiducial marker tracking has significant disadvantages, however. First,fiducial marker tracking fails any time the fiducial marker is notpresent in the scene. This can happen in a variety of circumstances,even while the surface remains in the scene. For example, the fiducialmarker may be occluded by an object that intervenes in space between thecamera and the fiducial marker, such as a person's hand or anotherinanimate object. The fiducial marker may also move outside of theboundaries of the video scene, such as when the camera moves so close to(or zooms in so close to) the surface that the scene can only contain aportion of the surface that excludes the fiducial marker. Thisdisadvantage can only be overcome by adding larger and larger numbers offiducial markers to the surface, overwhelming the appearance of thesurface and obscuring its innate visual features.

Second, fiducial marker tracking can fail when the surface is distantfrom the camera, and the camera's view of the surface is too limited todistinguish the fiducial marker. The only way to address thisdisadvantage is to use larger and larger fiducial markers, againoverwhelming the appearance of the surface and obscuring its innatevisual features.

In view of these shortcomings, an approach to surface tracking that doesnot rely on the continuous visibility and distinguishability of fiducialmarkers affixed to the surface would have significant utility.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed incolor. Copies of this patent or patent application with color drawingswill be provided to the United States Patent and Trademark Office uponrequest and payment of the necessary fee.

FIG. 1 is an image diagram showing a typical image that, when attachedto a surface, can be tracked by the facility.

FIG. 2 is a flow diagram showing steps typically performed by thefacility in order to track a surface.

FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing a typical environment in which thefacility operates.

FIG. 4 is a pixel diagram showing the relationship between a window usedin template matching and a search area within a video frame thatcontains it.

FIG. 5 is a pixel diagram that illustrates the feature point constraintsfor a candidate pixel.

FIG. 6A shows the output of this first step of the offline featureextraction algorithm for the original image resolution of 200 dpi.

FIG. 6B shows the output at a lower resolution of 100 dpi. Both of thesefigures reflect a template size of 25×25 pixels.

FIG. 7 is an image diagram showing sample features extracted from theimage shown in FIG. 1.

FIG. 8 is a graph showing the experimental efficacy of differentcombinations of these prediction methods.

FIGS. 9A-9C are tracking diagrams showing tracking results for variousresolutions in a scene.

FIGS. 10A and 10B are tracking diagrams showing tracking results underan occlusion condition.

FIGS. 11A-11D are tracking diagrams showing tracking results for scenesunder various degrees of rotation.

FIGS. 12A and 12B are image diagrams showing sample images tracked bythe facility.

FIG. 13 is a coordinate diagram showing the coordinate system used bythe facility.

FIGS. 14A and 14B are diagrams showing preliminary feature pointextraction results.

FIGS. 15A and 15B are diagrams showing preliminary feature pointextraction results.

FIGS. 16A-16H are tracking diagrams showing the results of sampletracking experiments.

FIGS. 17A-17D show template matching results for example images.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

A software facility for tracking a surface in a 3-dimensional sceneusing natural visual features of the surface (“the facility”) isprovided. In some embodiments, the facility acquires an image of thesurface, and uses it to select visual features of the surface that thefacility will use to track the surface. In some embodiments, thefacility performs this surface analysis and feature selection on anon-real-time basis. In some embodiments, the facility selects groups offeatures that are each of a different size, for use when the surface isat different distances from the camera. To initially identify thesurface in the video frame, in some embodiments, the facility locates afiducial marker attached to the surface within the video scene, and usesit to determine the surface's distance and orientation relative to thecamera. After this point, the facility reiteratively uses earliertracking results to both (1) select a group of features to search forbased upon the distance of the surface from the camera, and (2)delineate search zones in the video scene in which the facility expectsto find the natural features based upon their prior positions. Thefacility then searches these search zones for the natural features inthe selected group, and uses their locations in the video scene todetermine the surface's location and orientation relative to the camera.

The key idea to allow real-time tracking of natural features is toselect beforehand the “best” features to track using an offline imageprocessing program, and to choose an appropriate and fast matchingmethod that will allow the detection and matching of these features inreal-time during the online tracking phase. Based on theseconsiderations, we chose points as the features to track, and templatematching as the matching technique.

FIG. 1 is an image diagram showing a typical image that, when attachedto a surface, can be tracked by the facility. The image has visualcontents 100, including a fiducial marker 110.

The offline extraction of the features to track greatly reduces thecomputation time and makes it possible to track the features inreal-time: since the set of specific pixels to track is defined apriori, natural point features do not have to be extracted from eachframe, but only to be tracked over time. In other words, the offlinefeature point extraction generates a set of fixed “natural corners”which perform exactly the same function as the artificial cornersintroduced by a marker, i.e. to be reference points whose coordinatesare known in the object frame. However, as the camera pans in or pansout, the level of detail perceived by the camera changes dramatically.For example, a black letter on a white background is a good feature totrack when the camera is close to the planar scene, it might be thatthis same letter is not visible when the camera is far away from thescene. This problem can be solved by performing the offline featureextraction independently at different resolutions and adapting the setof features online as the camera moves.

In all other respects, the general principle of natural-feature basedtracking is the same as the marker-based tracking. Four coplanar featurepoints whose coordinates are known in the page and their projections inthe image plane provide correspondences that allow calculating theplanar homography and the extrinsic parameters. The main difference isthat there are usually a lot more than four feature points available,thus providing a natural mechanism to cope with occlusions: if thetracked planar scene has a reasonable size, it is very unlikely that theuser's hand will occlude all the available features in the image.

One drawback of the natural feature tracking however is that thetracker's initialization appears to be a delicate task: detecting fournatural feature points in the first video frame requires templatematching on the whole image for every single possible feature point.This search is computationally expensive and ineffective if the videoframe does not provide a perpendicular view of the scene to track. Toovercome this drawback, a marker is placed on the page to provide theinitial homography as described further below. This homography is usedto un-warp the image so that the tracker has a perpendicular view of thescene. From there the tracker knows where to look for the predefinednatural point features and no longer needs the marker to be in view. Asearch size is fixed and template matching is carried out in windowsaround the predicted feature points' positions. The four “best” naturalpoint features detected are selected as input for updating thehomography. The updated homography is also used to generate newtemplates around the feature points, since the region around a pixelchanges as the camera moves. The previous feature points' locations anddisplacement are used to predict their location in the next frame. Thenthe tracker estimates the current resolution of the planar scene as seenby the camera and changes the set of predefined features to track ifappropriate. Finally, the camera pose is estimated and the virtual modelcan be rendered on the top of the book page.

FIG. 2 is a flow diagram showing steps typically performed by thefacility in order to track a surface. The facility begins in markerbased initialization mode 210. In step 211, the facility converts animage of the surface into binary form. In step 212, the facilityextracts connected components from the binary version of the image ofthe surface. In step 213, the facility extracts the contours from theimage of the surface. In step 214, the facility rejects any falsecontours among the extracted contours, and performs sub-pixel recoveryof the coordinates of the corners of the marker. In step 215, thefacility computes the homography of the surface (that is, its locationand orientation relative to the camera), and un-warps the image of thesurface by normalizing it with respect to the surface's determinedlocation and orientation with respect to the camera. In step 216, thefacility selects the best visual features of the surface, such as thebest four features. These selected features are sometimes referred to as“point features.”

After the steps of the marker-based initialization mode 210 arecompleted, the facility enters a natural feature tracking mode 220. Instep 221, the facility updates the templates established during themarker-based initialization phase. In step 222, the facility usesearlier tracking results to predict the locations in the video image atwhich the surface's point features will occur in the next video frame.In step 223, the facility attempts to detect the point features near thepredicted locations in the video frame using a template-matchingprocess. In step 224, the facility updates the surface's homographyusing the results of step 223. In step 225, the facility evaluates theresolution in feature point selection for the next iteration of thenatural feature tracking mode. In some embodiments, step 225 precedesstep 221 in the natural feature tracking mode (not shown).

After completing the steps of natural feature tracking mode 220, thefacility performs a test 230 to determine whether the most recentiteration of the natural feature tracking mode failed to track thesurface in the video scene. If so, the facility continues in themarker-based initialization mode to re-locate the surface in the videoscene, else the facility continues in the natural feature tracking modeto continue tracking the surface.

FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing a typical environment in which thefacility operates. The environment contains a computer system 300, whichincludes one or more processors 310 for executing programs, such as thefacility; a video interface 320 that is connected to a camera 360 foracquiring individual images and/or video sequences comprised of images;a persistent storage device 330; a memory 340, containing at least thefacility 341; and a computer-readable medium drive 350 for readinginformation or installing programs such as the facility fromcomputer-readable media, such as a floppy disk, a CD-ROM, or a DVD.Those skilled in the art will appreciate that data and/or programs maybe transferred between memory and the persistent storage device forpurposes of memory management and data integrity. While variousembodiments are described in terms of the environment described above,those skilled in the art will appreciate that the facility may beimplemented in a variety of other environments including combinations ofone or more computer systems or similar devices connected in variousways.

1. Offline Feature Extraction

This subsection illustrates the design of the feature extraction schemethat detects the best candidate points for template matching atdifferent resolutions.

1.1 Template Matching

The offline feature extraction method detects points for which templatematching will work well. Therefore, the design of the feature extractionscheme is contingent on the design of the template matching technique.Assuming that the disparity between two successive video frames I_(k)and I_(k+1) is small, then the criterion that can be used to match apoint feature is similarity. For points, the universal measure ofintensity similarity is correlation. Let p_(i) be a feature point inI_(k), and W be a window of size w+1 and h+1 (with w and h odd numbers)centered on p_(i). W defines the template to look for in I_(k+1).

FIG. 4 is a pixel diagram showing the relationship between a window usedin template matching and a search area within a video frame thatcontains it. Rectangle 400 is the video frame I_(k+1). Rectangle 410 isthe search area. Rectangle 420 is the search window W, centered on pixel430 at (y₀, x₀). Window W spans columns x₀−w/2 through x₀+w/2, and spansrows y₀−w/2 through y₀+w/2.

Finding the pixel in I_(k+1) that is most likely to correspond to p_(i)is equivalent to finding the region of size w+1 and h+1 in I_(k+1) thathas the highest correlation score with W within the search area.Normalized cross-correlation (NCC)—discussed in F. Vial, “State of theArt Report on Natural Feature Tracking for Vision—Based Real-TimeAugmented Reality”, Technical Report, Human Interface TechnologyLaboratory New Zealand (HITLab NZ), University of Canterbury,Christchurch, New Zealand, 2003, has shown to be an effective pointcorrelation method. To calculate the NCC between a template W and aregion of the same size around a pixel (x₀, y₀) in I_(k+1), theintensity values for the considered pixels have to be centered. Let iand j be indexes spanning a square region of the same size as W. ThenĨ _(k+1)(x ₀ ,y ₀ ,i,j)=I _(k+1)(x ₀ +i,y ₀ +j)−Ī _(k+1)(x ₀ ,y ₀) and{tilde over (W)}(i,j)=W(i,j)− Ware the centered values of the pixel (i,j) within the considered regionin I_(k+1) and W respectively, with

${{\overset{\_}{I}}_{k + 1}\left( {x_{0},y_{0}} \right)} = {\frac{1}{\left( {w + 1} \right)\left( {h + 1} \right)}{\sum\limits_{i = {{- w}/2}}^{w/2}{\sum\limits_{j = {{- h}/2}}^{h/2}{I_{k + 1}\left( {{x_{0} + i},{y_{0} + j}} \right)}}}}$and$\overset{\_}{W} = {\frac{1}{\left( {w + 1} \right)\left( {h + 1} \right)}{\sum\limits_{i = {{- w}/2}}^{w/2}{\sum\limits_{j = {{- h}/2}}^{h/2}{W\left( {i,j} \right)}}}}$Then, the normalized cross correlation score between W and the regionaround (x₀,y₀) yields:

$\begin{matrix}{{{NCC}\left( {{I_{k + 1}\left( {x_{0},y_{0}} \right)},W} \right)} = \frac{\sum\limits_{i = {{- w}/2}}^{w/2}{\sum\limits_{j = {{- h}/2}}^{h/2}{{{\overset{\sim}{I}}_{k + 1}\left( {x_{0},y_{0},i,j} \right)}{\overset{\sim}{W}\left( {i,j} \right)}}}}{\sqrt{\sum\limits_{i = {{- w}/2}}^{w/2}{\sum\limits_{j = {{- h}/2}}^{h/2}{{\overset{\sim}{I}}_{k + 1}\left( {x_{0},y_{0},i,j} \right)}^{2}}}\sqrt{\sum\limits_{i = {{- w}/2}}^{w/2}{\sum\limits_{j = {{- h}/2}}^{h/2}{\overset{\sim}{W}\left( {i,j} \right)}^{2}}}}} & \left( {1.1{.1}} \right)\end{matrix}$

An advantage is that the NCC scores between −1 and 1, providing anintuitive range to perform similarity thresholding: a value of −1indicates no similarity at all whereas a value of 1 shows perfectsimilarity. Another benefit of using the NCC comes from itsinsensitivity to illumination changes. If we model an illuminationchange by the addition of a constant value to all the pixels of theregions, then the score of the NCC will be the same as without thatoffset. However, correlation is not insensitive to any affine orperspective transformation. Therefore, templates will be generated foreach frame grabbed by the system as mentioned above.

Moreover, NCC is computationally expensive and can become inefficientwhen the values of w, h and the size of the search area become large. Tocompensate for this, a coarse to fine technique will be used: firstly,template matching within the search window is carried out every n pixelsto reduce the search complexity by a factor n. The three positions forwhich the NCC score was the highest are stored. Then the fine search iscarried out: template matching is performed for every pixel in theregions around the three stored positions. The highest NCC scoreprovides the final detected position.

1.2 Point Feature Extraction Scheme

A front-facing representation of the planar scene to track containing amarker has to be supplied to the tracker. Usually, a JPEG or a GIF fileis used as the input image file. Firstly, the marker is detected in theinput image using well known techniques, such as those described in U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 60/513,725. The position and size ofthe scene in the input image are calculated and stored in a file.

Subsequently, the extraction of the natural features of the scene isperformed. The choice of a specific template matching technique to matchnatural feature points from frame to frame requires that we define a setof constraints for the feature points to be extracted from the originalimage:

-   -   Constraint 1: the similarity between pixels inside the w×h        region around the candidate feature point (and outside the        circular area defined in constraint 2.) should be small so that        uniform or low contrast regions are rejected. This is equivalent        to saying that the template should have a minimum variance.    -   Constraint 2: the similarity between pixels inside the w×h        region within a circular region of radius n around a candidate        feature point should be high so that the best three results in        the coarse step of template matching include the region around        the correct position of the feature. In other words, this        constraint ensures that the correct feature position is not        missed by the coarse step of the template matching.    -   Constraint 3: there should be no similar region within the        search area around a candidate feature point for which template        matching is carried out. In other words, we want to make sure        that there can be no more than one match for a template of size        w and h in the search area of size w_(search) and h_(search)        around the candidate pixel so that the tracker does not get        confused.

FIG. 5 is a pixel diagram that illustrates the feature point constraintsfor a candidate pixel. The candidate pixel 501 is likely to be a goodfeature within template 503 if: (1) the similarity within a smallcircular region 502 about the candidate pixel is high; (2) thesimilarity inside the template 503 and outside the circular region 502is low, i.e., there is a high variance; and (3) no similar templateregions exist within search area 504.

The offline feature extraction program proceeds thus: the user gives inthe different resolutions for which he or she would like the features tobe automatically extracted. The more resolutions are specified, the moreaccurate the tracker will be but the more processing time will berequired. The parameters that have to be fixed for the natural featureextraction are:

-   -   the template dimensions w and h    -   the threshold t_(var) defining the minimum value of the variance        described in constraint 1 above.    -   the search size for template matching w_(search) and h_(search)    -   the threshold t_(MaxSim) defining the maximum tolerated        similarity described in constraint 3.    -   the radius r of the small circular region and the threshold        t_(MinSim) defining the minimum tolerated similarity described        in constraint 2.

Experimental results have been carried out (see Section 3 below) thatprovide default values for these parameters. In a first step, thefeature extraction process only tests for the constraints 1 and 3. Theprocedure is outlined in the pseudocode shown in Code Block 1 below.

For every resolution chosen by the user

For every pixel pix in the input image

-   -   Generate the template tp of size w and h around pix.    -   Calculate the variance over the region tp excluding the central        circular area of radius n.    -   If (variance <t_(var)) reject pix and go to next pixel.    -   For every w×h region reg included in the w_(search)×h_(search)        window around pix        -   Calculate the similarity sim between reg and tp with the            normalized cross correlation.)        -   Update the maximum value of similarity within the search            area.        -   If (similarity >t_(MaxSim)) reject pix and go to next pixel.

End For

-   -   Pix=sim        End For

End For

Code Block 1

The result of this algorithm performed for the image in FIG. 1 at twodifferent resolutions is shown in FIGS. 6A and 6B. FIG. 6A shows theoutput of this first step of the offline feature extraction algorithmfor the original image resolution of 200 dpi. FIG. 6B shows the outputat a lower resolution of 100 dpi. Both of these figures reflect atemplate size of 25×25 pixels. In the output images, dark regionsindicate highly correlated regions (uniform regions) from which featurepoints should not be chosen. On the contrary bright regions are imageregions for which template matching is likely to work well. As expected,fewer details are visible in the image with lower resolution.

The obtained maps of candidate features at different resolutions areused as input for a second algorithm that selects the best pointfeatures to track. This operation is performed by enforcing constraint 2and by thresholding the results obtained. Additional restrictions arethat the selected template regions must be as evenly distributed aspossible and must not overlap. The t_(var) parameter directly influencesthe number of features extracted: the higher t_(var) is the fewerfeature points will fulfil constraint 1. FIG. 7 is an image diagramshowing sample features extracted from the image shown in FIG. 1. FIG. 7shows the extracted features in the original image for t_(var)=10. Eachred square identifies a feature extracted for the original resolution(200 dpi) with t_(var)=10, t_(MaxSim)=0.65 and t_(MinSim)=0.85. Having alarge number of extracted features allows the tracker to cope betterwith occlusions but slows down the tracking process and may confuse thetracker under some occlusive conditions.

On the other hand, few features speeds up the tracking process but leadsthe system to be much more sensitive to occlusions. As a consequence, atrade-off has to be made to find the optimal balance between a goodocclusion handling and a fast tracking. The locations of the extractedfeature points relatively to the marker are stored in a file that willbe used during the online tracking mode.

2. Online Tracking

This subsection describes an efficient tracking algorithm of predefinedfeatures which allows continued pattern tracking in the presence ofsignificant occlusion. The fundamental idea is to track the known pointfeature from frame to frame, and to update the homography for the planarscene based on these natural features, instead of simply relying on thefour artificial corners provided by the marker.

2.1 Initialization

As mentioned earlier, the initialization of the tracker is made usingthe fiducial marker as described in Section 1.2.

2.2 Feature Selection and Template Updating

Now that the initial homography has been computed, the tracker has todecide which natural features are the “best” ones to choose in thecurrent frame. Keeping in mind the fact that our application must run inreal-time, we want to choose as few features as possible whose locationsare optimal. Therefore, the following heuristic selection method ischosen:

-   -   1. Using the homography of the previous frame, obtain the image        coordinates of the features from their known coordinates in the        object frame. Using the estimate of the current resolution,        reject all features that are not visible in the current video        frame.    -   2. Selection of the first feature point: select the one whose        position is the furthest from the video frame center.    -   3. Selection of the second feature point: select the one that is        the furthest from the first feature point.    -   4. Selection of the third feature point: select the one that        maximizes the area of the triangle formed with the two first        selected feature points.    -   5. Selection of the fourth feature point: select the point that        maximizes the area of the rectangle formed with the three first        selected feature points.

The motivation behind this selection scheme is that the homographycomputed from point features distant from each other is less prone toerrors. Once these four points have been selected, the homography fromprevious frame is also used to generate new templates around thefeatures. This template updating ensures that the rotated view of thetemplate does not prevent the template matching technique from working.

2.3 Coarse Feature Prediction

The first stage of the tracking mode consists of predicting the locationof the features in the current frame using the homography computed inthe previous frame. Assuming temporal coherency, three simple predictionmethods can be derived.

Firstly, it can be supposed that the feature in the current frame I_(k)will be located at the same position as in the previous frame I_(k−1)using the small inter-frame motion hypothesis:{circumflex over (p)}_(i) ^(k)=p_(i) ^(k−1)  (2.3.1)with the superscript “^” designated an estimation.

As the camera image is almost always moving, this assumption is almostalways violated, and we may therefore rather assume a constant velocityof the feature. So for any frame I_(k) with k>2, the value of thevelocity vector v yields:

${v(k)} = {v = \frac{p_{i}^{k - 1} - p_{i}^{k - 2}}{\Delta\; t}}$with Δt the time elapsed between the frame I_(k−1) and I_(k−2). We willsuppose that the time elapsed between two frames is constant and has aunit value. We can subsequently writev≅p _(i) ^(k−1) −p _(i) ^(k−2){circumflex over (p)}_(i) ^(k) can then be estimated as:{circumflex over (p)} _(i) ^(k) ≅p _(i) ^(k−1) +v{circumflex over (p)} _(i) ^(k)≅2p _(i) ^(k−1) −p _(i) ^(k−2)  (2.3.2)In a similar manner, if we consider that the acceleration of the featureis constant, then its position in frame I_(k) can be estimated by:{circumflex over (p)} _(i) ^(k)=3p _(i) ^(k−1)−3p _(i) ^(k−2) +p _(i)^(k−3)  (2.3.3)Those position estimates are coarse and could not compete in accuracywith the widely used Kalman filtering discussed in G. Iannizzotto, L.Vita, “On-line Object Tracking for Colour Video Analysis,” Real-TimeImaging, 8:2, pp. 145-155, April 2002, and D. Koller, G. Klinker, E.Rose, D. Breen, R. Whitaker, M. Tuceryan, “Real-time Vision-Based CameraTracking for Augmented Reality Applications,” in Proc. of the ACMSymposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology, pp. 87-94,Lausanne, Switzerland, September 1997, each of which is herebyincorporated by reference in its entirety, but they have the greatadvantage of being computationally cheap. Following one, two or allthree of these estimations, one can predict the position of p_(i) in thecurrent frame.2.4 Feature Detection

The estimated positions of the features are subject to errors due tosmall errors in the homography as well as due to the approximationsintroduced in Section 4.4.2. A search window around that position has tobe defined to proceed with template matching. The tricky task is to fixthe size of this search area. A simple approach is to declare its sizeconstant, and to set it to a value determined empirically by tests inreal conditions. This approach is very simple and may not be welladapted to dynamic motions, yet it is the basis of our system since weextracted features assuming a fixed search window size. A large searchwindow allows for more movement, but slows down the matching processsince normalized cross correlation has to be carried out for a largenumber of pixels. Conversely, a small search window size increases thespeed of the matching process, but increases the chance of trackerfailure due to rapid motion. Please refer to Section 3 for the empiricaldetermination of the window size. The position of the selected featuresis determined by the template matching process described in 1.1(typically, a match is found if the NCC score is greater than 0.7) andthe radial distortion is corrected.

2.5 Homography Updating and Resolution Estimation

Using the four feature point correspondences p_(i) ^(I)

^(P) _(i) ^(w), a new homography H is determined. A reprojection errormeasure is defined as:

$ɛ = \frac{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{4}\left( {p_{i}^{I} - {HP}_{i}^{W}} \right)^{2}}{4}$

If ε is smaller than a predefined threshold (a value of 5.0 has provento be a useful threshold value), the homography is accepted and anothertracking cycle can begin with the next video frame. If ε is greater thanthe threshold, it may indicate that the set of point correspondencescontains a spurious value due to noise or occlusion. To handle this, thesearch for a fifth feature point is carried out. If one additionalfeature point is detected, the planar homography is computed for everysubset of four points among five and the one that minimizes ε is chosenas the result. If a fifth feature point cannot be detected, trackingfails and the tracker reverts to the initialization mode. The fiducialmarker has to be in view for the tracker to be re-initialized.

If the tracking succeeds, an estimate of the viewed resolution of theplanar scene is computed as follows: two feature points whosecoordinates are known in the world frame and in the image frame arechosen. We know the distance in millimeters separating the two featuresin the world frame and the distance in pixels separating them in theimage frame. Consequently, it is easy to know how many pixels representa centimeter in world coordinates and to deduce the resolution of thescene that the camera is currently viewing. If necessary, a differentset of features corresponding to that resolution is chosen.

3. Implementation Details

3.1 Determining the Parameters

Our feature extraction technique necessitates that we set the dimensionsw and h of the template as well as dimensions w_(search) and h_(search)of the search size once and for all for the whole process. Forsimplicity reasons, we declare that both windows are square, that is,w=h and w_(search)=h_(search).

3.1.1 Template Size

For normalized cross correlation to be reliable, w has to be large, butthis also means that template matching will be computationallyexpensive. The computation time needed by normalized crossed correlationhas been calculated for a range of values of w. A value of 25 pixels hasshown to be a good trade-off between reliability and speed for images ofdimensions 3800 pixels×1920 pixels.

3.1.2 Search Area Size

Concerning the online tracking phase, the feature prediction method hasa direct influence on the size of the search area. A small search areawould make faster the matching process but would cause tracking to faildue to the coarse nature of the prediction method. This means that a toosmall value of w_(search) will give a higher chance of the trackedfeature not being in the search area and causing the tracker to fail. Todetermine w_(search) empirically, tracking in real conditions wascarried out for four thousand features with different combinations ofprediction methods (2.3.1), (2.3.2), and (2.3.3). The error raterepresenting the percentage of feature points that were not detected inthe search area was calculated as a function of the search area size.The results are shown in FIG. 8.

FIG. 8 is a graph showing the experimental efficacy of differentcombinations of these prediction methods. The graph 800 is encoded usinga key 801, in which the numeral 1 refers to prediction method (2.3.1),the numeral 2 refers to prediction method (2.3.2), and the numeral 3refers to prediction method (2.3.3).

It can be seen that prediction method (2.3.1) gives poor results unlessthe search window size is large. Furthermore, we observe that anycombination of two prediction methods or of the three together givessimilar results. To choose a search area size, we look more in detailsin the range between 41 and 61 pixels to see what value provides anacceptable error rate for every prediction method. The results are shownin Table 1 below.

The combination of prediction methods (2.3.1) and (2.3.2) is chosen toreduce the time needed by the prediction stage of the tracker.Consequently, a search area size of 49 is selected since it is theminimum size guaranteeing that the feature points will be found in thesearch area.

Finally, during the online tracking, the coarse step of templatematching is performed every n=3 pixels. This value allows enough speedimprovement for the tracker to work in real time.

3.2 Performance Evaluation

One of the major design goals of our augmented reality system wasreal-time performance on a standard personal computer. The software runsunder the Windows XP operating system and the camera used is anoff-the-shelf USB web camera delivering 640 pixel×480 pixel videoframes. The tracking system is currently implemented in C with OpenGLand VRML used to render the augmented graphics on top of the video. Alltests have been run on an Intel Pentium IV 2.4 GHz processor, with aGeForce4 Ti 4600 video card.

3.2.1 Offline Feature Extraction

The offline feature extraction is the bottleneck of the wholeapplication because of its algorithmic complexity. For small images (640pixels×480 pixels) the processing time can be a few minutes. However,when the size of the input becomes large, as it is the case for ourapplication (3800 pixels×1920 pixels), the time needed to generate thefeature map at different resolutions is more than five hours. Thisremains the main drawback of the application.

3.2.2 Online Tracking

The online tracking shows promising results with a frame rate of 25 to30 frames per second. This proves that the method is suitable forreal-time purposes.

The scale invariance is tested by starting tracking with the camera faraway from the scene and gradually taking it closer to the scene. Themulti-resolution template scheme works well as shown in FIGS. 9A-9C.

FIGS. 9A-9C are tracking diagrams showing tracking results for variousresolutions in a scene. FIG. 9A shows tracking results for a lowresolution, FIG. 9B for a medium resolution, and FIG. 9C for a highresolution. The numbered green squares in these figures represents thecurrent point features tracked. A zoomed view of the templates can beseen on the left side of each figure.

Occlusion handling is then tested with a typical users reaction: puttinga hand over the scene to track. Here again, the tracker succeeds inchoosing alternative feature points, thus providing continuous tracking.The results for occlusion are shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B.

FIGS. 10A and 10B are tracking diagrams showing tracking results underan occlusion condition. FIG. 10A shows tracking results for a scene thatis not occluded, while FIG. 10B shows tracking results for a similarscene that is occluded by a human hand. Because the occlusion of feature2 shown in FIG. 10A is prevented in the scene shown in FIG. 10B by theocclusion, the facility proceeds to register a new feature in the sceneof FIG. 10B, shown there as feature number 4.

Note that only the natural feature tracking mode provides any robustnessto occlusion. The marker-based initialization mode of the trackerrequires the marker to be completely visible. The robustness of thetracker relative to different orientations was also tested. The scenewas alternatively viewed from different angles and the tracker succeededin finding four features, even under severe rotation. An example isshown in FIGS. 11A-11D.

FIGS. 11A-11D are tracking diagrams showing tracking results for scenesunder various degrees of rotation. FIG. 11A shows tracking results underno rotation, FIG. 11B under rotation of 45°, FIG. 11C under rotation of60°, and FIG. 11D under rotation of 80°.

One limitation of some embodiments of the tracker is its sensitivity torapid motion. If the camera is rotated or translated quickly, thetracker usually fails. This is due to the poor image quality deliveredby a simple USB web camera. When the camera moves quickly, the frameprovided by the camera is too blurred for template matching to succeed.The use of a higher quality camera with higher shutter-speed shouldincrease considerably the robustness of the tracker to rapid imagemotion.

6. Additional Details

This section contains additional details about the facility and itsimplementation.

6.1 Tracked Images

FIGS. 12A and 12B are image diagrams showing sample images tracked bythe facility. The image of FIG. 12A consists of letters and photos andhas a size of about 20 cm by 28 cm. The image of FIG. 12B is an exampleof a color map, and is of size of about 80 cm by 104 cm.

6.2 Registration by Template Matching

6.2.1 Coordinates System

FIG. 13 is a coordinate diagram showing the coordinate system used bythe facility. There is an object coordinate frame centered on thetracked object. The origin of the object coordinates, X_(o) and Y_(o)axes lie on the surface, while the Z_(o) axis is perpendicular to thesurface. The camera has a camera coordinate frame and there is aperspective relationship between the camera coordinates and the screencoordinates. Straight lines in the 3D environment should ideally remainstraight when transformed into screen coordinates. However in practicethis does not happen because of lens distortion. To compensate for thiswe introduce two screen coordinates; ideal screen coordinates which keepthe perspective transformation with camera coordinates, and observedscreen coordinates which represent the distorted image from the camera.The transformation from object coordinates to ideal screen coordinatesis represented by

$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{h\begin{bmatrix}x_{c} \\y_{c} \\1\end{bmatrix}} = {{\begin{bmatrix}C_{11} & C_{12} & C_{13} \\0 & C_{22} & C_{23} \\0 & 0 & 1\end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix}R_{11} & R_{12} & R_{13} & T_{1} \\R_{21} & R_{22} & R_{23} & T_{2} \\R_{31} & R_{32} & R_{33} & T_{3}\end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}X_{o} \\Y_{o} \\Z_{o} \\1\end{bmatrix}}} \\{= {C \cdot {T_{co}\begin{bmatrix}X_{o} \\Y_{o} \\Z_{o} \\1\end{bmatrix}}}}\end{matrix} & \left( {{eq}.\mspace{14mu} 6.1} \right)\end{matrix}$where matrix C contains the intrinsic camera parameters of focal length,scale factor, optical center, aspect ratio and skew factor based onperspective projection model. Matrix T_(co) represents thetransformation between object coordinates to camera coordinates andconsists of a translation component and a rotation component.

The point (x_(c), y_(c)) in ideal screen coordinates is transformed tothe point (x_(d), y_(d)) in observed screen coordinates by thedistortion functionx=s(x _(c) −x _(d0)), y=s(y _(c) −y _(d0))d ² =x ² +y ²p={1−fd ²}x _(d) px+x _(d0) , y _(d) =py+y _(d0)  (eq. 6.2)where (x_(d0), y_(d0)) is the center of distortion, s is the scaleparameter and f is the distortion factor. This transformation is anon-linear function but we represent it as follows:

$\begin{matrix}{\begin{bmatrix}x_{d} \\y_{d} \\1\end{bmatrix} = {{{F\begin{bmatrix}x_{c} \\y_{c} \\1\end{bmatrix}}\begin{bmatrix}x_{c} \\y_{c} \\1\end{bmatrix}} = {F^{- 1}\begin{bmatrix}x_{d} \\y_{d} \\1\end{bmatrix}}}} & \left( {{eq}.\mspace{14mu} 6.3} \right)\end{matrix}$So the registration problem reduces to calculation of the transformationmatrix T_(co). We describe how to do this in the next section.

6.2.2 Pose and Position Calculation

Given that there are n feature points (X_(oi), Y_(oi), Z_(oi)) (i=0, 1,n−1) in object coordinates and they are projected into (x_(di), y_(di))(i=0, 1, n−1) in observed screen coordinates, an error function isrepresented in ideal screen coordinates (eq. 6.4).

$\begin{matrix}{{{err}^{2} = {{\frac{1}{n}{\sum\limits_{i = 0}^{n - 1}{\left\{ {\left( {x_{ci} - {\overset{\sim}{x}}_{ci}} \right)^{2} + \left( {y_{ci} - {\overset{\sim}{y}}_{ci}} \right)^{2}} \right\}\begin{bmatrix}x_{ci} \\y_{ci} \\1\end{bmatrix}}}} = {F^{- 1}\begin{bmatrix}x_{di} \\y_{di} \\1\end{bmatrix}}}},{{h\begin{bmatrix}{\overset{\sim}{x}}_{ci} \\{\overset{\sim}{y}}_{ci} \\1\end{bmatrix}} = {C \cdot {T_{co}\begin{bmatrix}X_{oi} \\Y_{oi} \\Z_{oi} \\1\end{bmatrix}}}}} & \left( {{eq}.\mspace{14mu} 6.4} \right)\end{matrix}$

The matrix T_(co) minimizes this error function. If n is more than 3 andsuitable initial values are given for T_(co), this calculation ispossible. We employ the functions provided, by ARToolKit for thiscalculation. In order to set suitable initial values into T_(co), theresult for previous frame is used in iterative tracking phase. A blacksquare fiducial and ARToolKit functions are used to set the initialvalues in initial detection phase.

To calculate subsequent values for T_(co) we need to detect positions inobserved screen coordinates which correspond to n feature points inobject coordinates. We employ template matching for this process.

6.2.3 Feature Detection by Template Matching

Template matching can detect similar regions to the template fromimages. In general templates have to be prepared beforehand. Howeverthis is impossible with this kind of 3D tracking, because the image of afeature point varies by its 6 DOF movement. Therefore the templates haveto be generated for each image frame. We assume that the movement of thetracked object is small between each continuous image frame. Thentemplates are generated from the texture image of the tracked objectthat is captured beforehand based on the pose and position informationin previous frame. Detection of feature positions consists of thefollowing three steps:

1) Calculation of Observed Screen Coordinates (x_(di), y_(di)) ofFeature Points

The tracked object exists in X_(o)−Y_(o) surface of the objectcoordinates. So the feature points can be represented as (X_(oi),y_(oi), 0) (i=0, 1, n−1). Given transformation matrix from the objectcoordinates to camera coordinates in previous frame is T_(co), observedscreen coordinates (x_(di), y_(di)) corresponding to (X_(oi), y_(oi), 0)can be calculate by (eq. 1) and (eq. 2).

2) Generation of the Template in which (x_(di), y_(di)) is Centered

In order to generate the template in which (x_(di), y_(di)) is centered,the transformation from observed screen coordinates to X_(o)−Y_(o)surface in the object coordinates is needed. Given Z_(o)=0, thefollowing equation is obtained.

$\begin{matrix}{{h\begin{bmatrix}x_{c} \\y_{c} \\1\end{bmatrix}} = {{C \cdot {T_{co}\begin{bmatrix}X_{o} \\Y_{o} \\0 \\1\end{bmatrix}}} = {{\begin{bmatrix}p_{11} & p_{12} & p_{13} \\p_{21} & p_{22} & p_{23} \\p_{31} & p_{32} & p_{33}\end{bmatrix}\begin{bmatrix}X_{o} \\Y_{o} \\1\end{bmatrix}} = {P\begin{bmatrix}X_{o} \\Y_{o} \\1\end{bmatrix}}}}} & \left( {{eq}\mspace{14mu} 6.5} \right)\end{matrix}$Therefore,

$\begin{matrix}{{\frac{1}{h}\begin{bmatrix}X_{o} \\Y_{o} \\1\end{bmatrix}} = {{P^{- 1}\begin{bmatrix}x_{c} \\y_{c} \\1\end{bmatrix}} = {P^{- 1} \cdot {F^{- 1}\begin{bmatrix}x_{d} \\y_{d} \\1\end{bmatrix}}}}} & \left( {{eq}.\mspace{14mu} 6.6} \right)\end{matrix}$By using this equation, object coordinates for every template pixels arecalculated and color values can be substituted in the template from thetexture image of the tracked object.

Template Matching

We employ normalized correlation for the template matching.

$\begin{matrix}{s = \frac{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N}{\left( {x_{j} - \overset{\sim}{x}} \right) \cdot \left( {y_{i} - \overset{\sim}{y}} \right)}}{\sqrt{\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N}\left( {x_{i} - \overset{\sim}{x}} \right)^{2}}\sqrt{\sum\limits_{j = 1}^{N}\left( {y_{j} - \overset{\sim}{y}} \right)^{2}}}} & \left( {{eq}\mspace{14mu} 6.7} \right)\end{matrix}$where x_(i) is a pixel value, {tilde over (x)}_(i) is the mean of pixelvalues, y_(i) is a template value and y _(i) is the mean of templatevalues. The calculated value is between −1.0 and 1.0. The position wherethe biggest value is found matches the corresponding position (x_(di),y_(di)) in observed screen coordinates to feature position (X_(oi),Y_(oi), 0) in object coordinates.

If at least three corresponding positions can be obtained, T_(co) can befound for the current image frame using the calculation in previoussection.

6.3 Improvements for Performance and Accuracy

6.3.1 Multi Scale Templates and Defocusing

Templates can be generated by using (eq. 6.6), however if the resolutionof the texture image is quite different from the resolution of generatedtemplates, the expected templates cannot be found because of theresampling problem. If an interpolation technique is used in resampling,it could be avoided. But it requires much calculation cost. To overcomethis some textured images with several resolutions need to be preparedbeforehand.

We also assume that the camera does not have automatic focus control andthat input images are captured with blur in certain distance between thecamera and tracked objects. To compensate for this we defocus sometexture images by adopting an averaging filter of 3×3 mask.

6.3.2 Feature Selection

Feature points in texture images are registered with our softwarebeforehand so they can be used for template matching. However suitablefeature points for template matching depend on the resolution. Forexample, when the camera is near to the tracked object, the resolutionof observed image is high and small letters in the image can be used asfeature points. On the other hand, when the camera is far from thetracked object, the resolution of observed image is low and smallletters cannot be resolved. To compensate for this suitable featurepoints are independently registered for different resolutions of thetexture image.

As many feature points as possible are registered, and the best of theseare dynamically selected in the tracking phase. Because we don't usespecial hardware for the template matching, the selection of the leastnumber and optimal locations of feature points is desired in order toreduce the calculation cost as much as possible. In addition, the orderof selection of feature points is important and is done iteratively withthe tracking of each feature point.

We employ a heuristic feature selection method as follows. First of all,the most important feature selection policy is that four feature pointsare detected from images. If this is impossible, detection of threefeature points is needed. If fewer than three feature points aredetected, then tracking fails. When a feature point is selected,template matching is done for the selected feature. If the templatematching succeeds, in other words the maximal value of normalizedcorrelation is greater than 0.7, the feature point are stored andselection of next feature point is continued. If the template matchingfails, the feature point is rejected and selection of an alternativefeature point is continued. The conditions used by this selection policyare as follows:

1) Common Condition that is not Relative to Selection Order

-   -   1.1—The position of the feature point has to be within the image        window when its 3D position is projected into the observed        screen coordinates by using the T_(co) matrix obtained from the        previous frame.    -   1.2—The resolution of the feature point is satisfied with the        condition pre-defined for each feature when it is projected into        the observed screen coordinates.

2) Selection of the First Feature Point

-   -   The feature position is the farthest from image center.

3) Selection of the Second Feature Point

-   -   The feature position is the farthest from the first feature        point.

4) Selection of the Third Feature Point

-   -   The area of the triangle that is made with the first and second        feature points is maximum.

5) Selection of the Fourth Feature Point

-   -   The area of the rectangle that is made with the first, second        and third feature points is maximum.

6) Selection of the Fifth Feature Point

-   -   The feature is selected in registered order.

When template matching succeeds for four feature points, thetransformation matrix T_(co) is calculated from them based on (eq. 6.4).If the error is less than a certain value (5.0 in experiments), theobject tracking succeeds. If not, missed detections might be includedand the detection of a fifth feature point is carried out. If one isfound, the transformation matrices T_(co) are calculated for allcombinations of four feature points in the set of five points. Then thetransformation matrix with minimum error is picked up as a result. Ifthe detection of a fifth feature point fails, transformation matricesT_(co) are calculated for all combinations of three feature points inthe set of four points. Then the transformation matrix with minimumerror is picked up as a result. If the minimum error value is greaterthan a threshold, the object tracking fails.

6.3.3 Improvement of Performance on Template Matching

Normalized correlation has a high calculation cost while it detectsmatching point well. Our template size is 24×12 pixels for a 640×240image. Images of 640×480 are input but field sequential images are usedfor template matching. To further improve performance, template matchingis done for gray-scale pixel values that are calculated by averagingcolor pixels. At the moment, the dimension of matching data is24×12×1=288 and its calculation cost is still high.

To reduce the calculation cost, we employ two steps template matching.First of all, a coarse search is carried out. In scanning on the searcharea, template matching is done once for every 3 pixels in the xdirection and the positions of best three results are stored. Also (eq.6.9) is used for this template matching.

$\begin{matrix}{e = {\sum\limits_{j = 0}^{11}{\sum\limits_{i = 0}^{11}{{\left( {{I\left( {{2i},j} \right)} - \overset{\_}{I}} \right) - \left( {{T\left( {{2i},j} \right)} - \overset{\_}{T}} \right)}}}}} & \left( {{eq}.\mspace{14mu} 6.9} \right)\end{matrix}$where I(i,j) is a pixel value at position (i, j) in the region on whichtemplate overlaps, Ĩ is an average pixel values in the region in whichthe template overlaps, T(i,j) is a pixel value at position (i, j) in thetemplate and T is an average pixel value in the template. As mentionedbefore, the template size is 24×12 pixels. However this calculation usesone pixel in every two pixels so the calculation cost is reduced.

Next, a fine search is carried out. A normalized correlation with a24×12 template size is used based on (eq. 6.7) in regions around thepreviously obtained three positions. Then the position with highestcorrelation value is found as the result.

In order for this template matching to work well, matching results inthe region around the correct position have to keep a high similarity sothat they are included in the best three results in the coarse search.Defocusing the texture images aids this 2 step matching process as well.

6.4 Offline Automatic Feature Detection

Many suitable feature points have to be registered in images of allresolutions so that the template matching described in section 3 workswell. There are two conditions for suitable feature points.

-   -   1) There are no similar regions within the search size of        template matching.    -   2) Similarity within three pixels from the feature point is        high.

We have developed a method for automatic detection of the best featurepoints. Suitability as a feature point is examined at every position fortexture images of all resolutions. For each point in the texture image,the region of which the point is center is extracted as a template andthe maximum value of the normalized correlation is calculated from asearch area of 49×49 pixels, excluding the center 5×5 pixel region. Thisvalue is calculated at every position in a texture image.

FIGS. 14A and 14B are diagrams showing preliminary feature pointextraction results. FIG. 14A shows preliminary feature point extractionresults for the image of FIG. 12A while FIG. 14B shows preliminaryfeature point extraction results for the image of FIG. 12B. Brightpixels in these images means little correlation value, that is, brightposition are suitable for condition 1 as a feature point. The squaremarker regions in the images are also omitted from this calculation.

Next, normalized correlation is carried out for the 5×5 region,excluding the center position. If the minimum value is greater than 0.6and the maximum value less than 1.0, then the position is registered asa feature point. However if its template region has overlaps with thetemplate regions of pre-registered feature points, it is cancelled.FIGS. 15A and 15B are diagrams showing preliminary feature pointextraction results. FIG. 15A shows preliminary feature point extractionresults for the image of FIG. 12A while FIG. 15B shows preliminaryfeature point extraction results for the image of FIG. 12B. Each figureshows feature points extracted at three different levels of resolutions:feature points identified by red boxes at a high level of resolution,feature points identified by green boxes at a medium level ofresolution, and feature points identified by blue boxes at a low levelof resolution.

6.5 Experiments

Experiments were done for texture images in FIG. 1. We used a PC with anIntel Pentium4 2.0 GHz, Linux OS, an analog video capture card and aGeForce3 graphics card. A camera was attached on a HMD and its shutterspeed was 1/250 sec. 640×480 images were captured and the trackingprogram was able to work accurately at about 30 frames per seconds.While tracking succeeds, 16 wire-frame cubes are overlaid on the trackedobjects.

FIGS. 16A-16H are tracking diagrams showing the results of sampletracking experiments. We can see virtual objects are suitably overlaidon the tracked objects in some conditions.

FIGS. 17A-17D show template matching results for example images. Therectangles arrayed along the left edge of each figure show the featuretemplates generated by the facility for the matched features. Greenrectangle regions in images are accepted matching regions and yellowrectangle regions are rejected regions. We can see template matching isattempted until 4 matching regions are found. So registration works welleven when textures are occluded by a hand.

Tracking sometimes failed when a tracked object rotates quickly becausetemplate matching is robust for translation but not robust for rotationof the tracked regions. Another problem was pose and positioncalculation from 3 feature points. When 3 feature points are almost in astraight line, the registration was bad and it caused tracking to failin next frame. So the condition to select 3 feature points in the set of4 points has to be considered.

It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that theabove-described facility may be straightforwardly adapted or extended invarious ways. While the foregoing description makes reference topreferred embodiments, the scope of the invention is defined solely bythe claims that follow and the elements recited therein.

1. A method in a computing system having a processor for trackingthe-movement of a surface having an arbitrary appearance relative to acamera, comprising: capturing an image of the surface using the camera;analyzing by the computing system the captured image of the surface toidentify visual features present in the image surface; from theidentified visual features, selecting by the computing system aplurality of visual features for use in tracking the movement of thesurface with respect to the camera, wherein the selection of identifiedfeatures includes selecting visual features in at least two differentsize ranges; selecting one of the size ranges based upon a measure ofdistance from the camera to a present location of the surface; receivingby the computing system a sequence of images captured by the camera, atleast some of which constitute a view of at least a portion of thesurface; for each image of the sequence: identifying by the computingsystem 2-dimensional positions at which the selected features occur inthe image; and based upon the 2-dimensional positions at which theselected features are identified in the image, determining by thecomputing system 3-dimensional location and orientation of the surfacein the image of the sequence with respect to the camera, whereinselected features in the selected size range are used to determine thelocation and orientation of the surface.
 2. The method of claim 1wherein the identification of the 2-dimensional positions at which theselected features occur in the image is predicated on an assumption thatthe selected features appear as coplanar in the image.
 3. The method ofclaim 1 wherein the surface is a 2-dimensional surface.
 4. The method ofclaim 1 wherein the surface is a flat surface.
 5. The method of claim 1wherein the surface is an irregular body that appears flat when observedat a distance.
 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising using by thecomputing system the determined location and orientation of the surfaceto introduce a supplemental image into the images of the sequence at asize, location, and orientation that are relative to those of thesurface.
 7. The method of claim 1, further comprising using by thecomputing system the determined location and orientation of the surfaceto superimpose a view of a 3-dimensional object over the surface.
 8. Themethod of claim 1 wherein the selection of identified features isperformed based upon a comparison of the levels of contrast provided byeach of the identified features.
 9. The method of claim 1 wherein theselection of identified features is performed based upon a comparison ofthe levels of uniqueness of each of the identified features among all ofthe identified features.
 10. The method of claim 1 wherein the selectionof identified features is performed based upon a comparison of thelevels of accuracy with which they can be used to determine the positionand orientation of the surface.
 11. The method of claim 1, furthercomprising, for each image of the sequence: based upon the 2-dimensionalpositions at which the features are identified in one or more priorimages of the sequence, predicting by the computing system 2-dimensionalpositions at which the features will occur in the current image; andestablishing by the computing system search zones about the predictedpositions, and wherein identifying by the computing system 2-dimensionalpositions at which the selected features occur in the image comprisessearching by the computing system the established search zones for theselected features.
 12. The method of claim 1 wherein the surface, inaddition to having an arbitrary appearance, is modified to contain oneor more fiducial markers, the method further comprising, in a firstimage of the sequence, identifying and analyzing by the computing systema portion of the image corresponding to the fiducial markers todetermining the 3-dimensional location and orientation of the surface inthe image, and wherein the determining the 3-dimensional location andorientation of the surface in the first image of the sequence is used toidentify the 2-dimensional positions at which the selected featuresoccur in the first image of the sequence.
 13. The method of claim 12wherein each fiducial marker comprises a unique distinguishing pattern.14. The method of claim 12 wherein each fiducial marker issquare-shaped.
 15. The method of claim 1 wherein the 3-dimensionallocation and orientation of the surface in the current image of thesequence is determined without the use of explicit fiducial markers. 16.The method of claim 1 further comprising capturing the sequence ofimages using the camera, and wherein the determination by the computingsystem is made in real-time with respect to the capture.
 17. The methodof claim 1 wherein, between two successive images of the sequence, thecamera moves relative to the environment.
 18. The method of claim 1wherein, between two successive images of the sequence, the surfacemoves relative to the environment.
 19. The method of claim 1 wherein theimages are captured by a single camera.
 20. A computer-readable storagemedium comprising computer executable instructions which when executedon a computing system cause the computing system to track the-movementof a surface having an arbitrary appearance relative to a camera by:capturing an image of the surface using the camera; analyzing by thecomputing system the captured image of the surface to identify visualfeatures present in the surface; from the identified visual features,selecting by the computing system a plurality of visual features for usein tracking the movement of the surface with respect to the camera,wherein the selection of identified features includes selecting visualfeatures in at least two different size ranges; selecting one of thesize ranges based upon a measure of distance from the camera to apresent location of the surface; receiving by the computing system asequence of images captured by the camera, at least some of whichconstitute a view of at least a portion of the surface; for each imageof the sequence: identifying by the computing system 2-dimensionalpositions at which the selected features occur in the image; and basedupon the 2-dimensional positions at which the selected features areidentified in the image, determining by the computing system3-dimensional location and orientation of the surface in the image ofthe sequence with respect to the camera, wherein selected features inthe selected size range are used to determine the location andorientation of the surface.
 21. The computer-readable medium of claim 20wherein the images are captured by only one camera.
 22. A method in acomputing system having a processor for tracking a 2-dimensional surfacehaving an innate visual appearance and being marked with one or moreexplicit fiducial markers, comprising: storing in computer system'smemory images of the surface captured by a camera; identifying by thecomputing system visually significant aspects of the surface's innatevisual appearance from images stored in the memory, wherein theidentification of visually significant aspects includes identifyingvisually significant aspects in at least two different size ranges;selecting one of the size ranges based upon a measure of distance fromthe camera to a present location of the surface; in a first of a seriesof perspective images of the surface, performing by the computing systemrecognition of the fiducial markers to determine the 3-dimensionallocation and orientation of the surface in the first image; and insuccessive perspective images of the surface, performing by thecomputing system recognition of the identified aspects of the surface'sinnate visual appearance to determine the 3-dimensional location andorientation of the surface in the successive images, wherein identifiedaspects in the selected size range are used to determine the locationand orientation of the surface.
 23. The method of claim 22 wherein therecognition of the identified aspects of the surface's innate visualappearance in each successive image is guided by the 3-dimensionallocation and orientation of the surface in the preceding image.
 24. Themethod of claim 22 wherein each fiducial marker is square-shaped. 25.The method of claim 22 wherein the recognition of the identified aspectsof the surface's innate visual appearance is predicated on an assumptionthat the selected features appear as coplanar in the successiveperspective images.
 26. A computing system for tracking a 2-dimensionalsurface having an innate visual appearance and being marked with one ormore explicit fiducial markers, comprising: a processor; a memorystoring images of the surface captured by a camera; a visual analysissubsystem that identifies visually significant aspects of the surface'sinnate visual appearance from images stored in the memory, wherein thevisual analysis subsystem identifies visually significant aspects in atleast two different size ranges; a selection subsystem that selects oneof the size ranges based upon a measure of distance from the camera to apresent location of the surface; a first recognition subsystem that, ina first of a series of perspective images of the surface, performsrecognition of the fiducial markers to determine the 3-dimensionallocation and orientation of the surface in the first image; and a secondrecognition subsystem that, in successive perspective images of thesurface, performs recognition of the identified aspects of the surface'sinnate visual appearance to determine the 3-dimensional location andorientation of the surface in the successive images, wherein identifiedaspects in the selected size range are used to determine the locationand orientation of the surface.
 27. A method in a computing systemhaving a processor for determining the 3-dimensional location andorientation of a subject surface in a distinguished perspective image ofthe subject surface, the subject surface having innate visual features,the method comprising: storing in computer system's memory distinguishedperspective images of the surface captured by a camera; selecting aplurality of subsets of innate visual features of the subject surfaceeach subset containing features of a different size; using locations ofthe selected visual features in a perspective image of the subjectsurface that precedes the distinguished perspective image in time,identifying by the computing system search zones in the distinguishedperspective image; based on an earlier-determined 3-dimensional locationof the subject surface, choosing by the computing system one subset offeatures based upon a measure of distance from the camera to a presentlocation of the surface; searching by the computing system theidentified search zones for the selected visual features to determinethe 2-dimensional locations at which the selected visual features occur,wherein the identified search zones are searched for the features of thechosen subset; and based on the determined 2-dimensional locations,determining by the computing system the 3-dimensional location andorientation of the subject surface in the distinguished perspectiveimage.
 28. The method of claim 27 wherein the selected innate visualfeatures of the subject surface number at least four.
 29. The method ofclaim 27 wherein the determination of the 2-dimensional locations atwhich the selected visual features occur is predicated on an assumptionthat the selected visual features appear as coplanar in the image.
 30. Acomputer-readable storage medium comprising computer executableinstructions which when executed on a computing system cause thecomputing system to determine the 3-dimensional location and orientationof a subject surface in a distinguished perspective image of the subjectsurface, the subject surface having innate visual features, by a methodcomprising: storing in computer system's memory distinguishedperspective images of the surface captured by a camera; selecting aplurality of subsets of innate visual features of the subject surfaceeach subset containing features of a different size; using locations ofthe selected visual features in a perspective image of the subjectsurface that precedes the distinguished perspective image in time,identifying by the computing system search zones in the distinguishedperspective image; based on an earlier-determined 3-dimensional locationof the subject surface, choosing by the computing system one subset offeatures based upon a measure of distance from the camera to a presentlocation of the surface; searching by the computing system theidentified search zones for the selected visual features to determinethe 2-dimensional locations at which the selected visual features occur,wherein the identified search zones are searched for the features of thechosen subset; and based on the determined 2-dimensional locations,determining by the computing the 3-dimensional location and orientationof the subject surface in the distinguished perspective image.